LESSON

What about other kinds of stories… do the same principles apply?

You bet they do. That’s the great aspect of story design. Now that you understand the building blocks at play in some of the greatest stories ever written, you can think about how to apply these techniques, or tools, to other forms of storytelling. This is possible because those of us who study the underlying principles of great screenwriting or storytelling aren’t inventing it from scratch. Rather, we’re noting recurring principles in the great stories we consume. Once we spot those trends and characteristics, it’s possible to think about how to replicate them and ensure the key ingredients of success get included in our own tales.

The ﬁrst person to note these kinds of trends and write about them was Aristotle, who outlined the basic principles of dramatic narrative, as he saw them, in his Poetics. For Aristotle, plot and character are the two most signiﬁcant elements of great storytelling. Special effects come in last. That’s not because they’re not enjoyable, it’s because the effects will never compensate adequately for a lack of story. You can blow things up all day long—if the plot (and character) development elements required to solicit the emotions of the reader or audience aren’t present, you’re ﬁghting a losing battle. Take STAR WARS IV: A NEW HOPE, or WONDER WOMAN, for example. The special effects are amazing, but they don’t supplant or attempt to replace very real stakes and jeopardy. The dramatic premise, the ﬁght between good and evil is real and palpable, and it plays out through the characters and their own internal struggles on an entirely human scale.

I’d argue that story design principles can serve you equally well in the creation of short ﬁlms, short stories, novels, and even story-driven commercials, but those are discussions for another day. In this appendix, by popular demand, I’ll brieﬂy overview how to apply them to the crafting of an insanely great documentary ﬁlm.

In recent years, the world of documentary ﬁlmmaking has exploded. Rapidly evolving advances in technology have broken down barriers to entry and made it more possible than ever to tell important stories to massive audiences. That said, as you now know, not all stories are created equal.

A video of my neighbor’s cat might elicit the pleasure of thousands of Facebook viewers for a few days, but much more focused groundwork and preparation needs to be done in order to craft a meaningful documentary ﬁlm that connects with audiences on an emotional level, and incites viewers to action.

Of course, impact has many faces. Some ﬁlms spark community conversations. Others scale dialogue to national, and even global, spheres of inﬂuence. For example, THE INVISIBLE WAR (2012) introduced twenty pieces of new legislation to address the U.S. Military sexual assault epidemic. A SMALL ACT (2010) inspired donations of over $2 million to high school education programs in Kenya. AMERICAN PROMISE (2013) has already been used by 15,000 educators through the Teaching Tolerance curriculum, and CRIME AFTER CRIME (2011) raised over $160,000 for domestic violence prevention organizations across the United States. Other notable films like AN INCONVENIENT TRUTH (2006) initiated ongoing, global conversations about climate change.

Making audiences care—and not simply exposing them to foreign worlds and realities—has been in the DNA of documentary ﬁlmmaking for a very long time. The early ﬁlmmakers of the twentieth century quickly moved beyond creating anthropological records of foreign cultures and events and sought to inﬂuence and shape culture. They were, to all intents and purposes, some of the earliest social entrepreneurs, who understood the power of the media and storytelling to effect change. I believe that is, to a great extent, what it means to be a socially conscious artist. We push ourselves daily to shed new light on the world in which we live, and go so far as to expose problems or inspire others, by sharing experiences of great joy. We tell stories with the primary goal of making others care… and in the best case scenario, we aspire to bring about actual, real-life change. By planning intentional, researched, scalable impact campaigns around a documentary ﬁlm, twenty-ﬁrst century storytellers are harnessing new and exciting developments in technology—from digital ﬁlm to virtual reality experiences—as well as advances in storytelling research, in order to reach broader audiences and effect change.

How do documentarians connect with viewers and make audiences care? At the end of the day, as Andrew Stanton reminds us, that’s the end-all-be-all of every story. Maya Angelou has her own way of putting it: “People won’t remember what you said, they’ll remember how you made them feel.” In my own work, I’ve never approached documentary storytelling from the position that it’s about communicating facts. Rather, like most documentarians today, I want to make audiences care about the issues at stake and, even better, take action of some kind (and preferably curate that action or empower it through the impact campaign surrounding the ﬁlm).

We’ve already noted Jerome Bruner’s point that we remember stories twenty-two times more than facts. We’ve also discussed how certain aspects of stories and the ways in which we tell them release chemicals into our brains and actually change the chemical balance of our bodies. Oxytocin and cortisol trigger attachment, stress and (together) emotional investment and vulnerability. Dopamine, released when we encounter new information or see something from a fresh perspective, acts like a save button in our brains. There you have it: the OCD of insanely great storytelling.

We even know that three-act structure is the most effective way to gain the investment of a viewer and trigger these kinds of reactions. As I made the transition into the world of documentary ﬁlmmaking, I wanted to think about how three-act structure could be reimagined and adapted to the needs of the documentary and impact world. In other words, what does it look like for a documentary ﬁlm to have an effective beginning, middle and end? How might documentary ﬁlmmakers adapt the techniques proven effective in narrative feature ﬁlm writing in order to sustain the interest and engagement of audiences? (And, ultimately, make the message “stick” so well that it carries beyond the theatre and into measurable action and impact?)

The key is to pose the question, who do we want to go through the greatest character arc as they watch the documentary ﬁlm? What is the actual effect we’re hoping to achieve? For me, the answer is simple. Whether there’s a protagonist in the ﬁlm itself or not (due to a more issues-based approach—although I prefer the former), the unity and integrity of the documentary ﬁlm experience aims to provoke a character arc in each member of the audience. Ultimately, I want an audience member to enter the theatre or sit down in front of their television with the sum of knowledge and perceptions they have about the world, and I want the ﬁlm to invite that person on a journey in which they become an active participant, and shift their perspective so that they are ready to take action when the ﬁlm ends. It’s that simple. In a great documentary ﬁlm, the audience experiences the highs and lows of the story design process because the audience member is the protagonist. At least, that’s how I like to think about it.

With all of that in mind, here’s my story design process adapted to mapping out a documentary ﬁlm. It’s helpful to think about these issues prior to ﬁlming, but the primary intent here is for you to be empowered to assemble the edit so as to achieve a strong character arc with a solid beginning, middle and end. I’ve used these techniques to counsel and consult with numerous documentary teams, as well as polish up the ﬁlms I’ve written and produced, and I think you’ll ﬁnd useful ways to build on their foundation and make them your own.

Point of Attack. This is the beginning of your movie. Like the writer of a feature ﬁlm, you’ll want to try a few options in order to pick a scene that best introduces the premise and themes of the project.

Remember to showcase the values at stake in the story world. You’re setting up the world as it currently exists, and in which your issue mandates a shift (e.g., our world is one in which the trafﬁcking of human beings represents one of the most dynamic, growing economies, and this should not be the case—everyone deserves to be free). The goal here is to provide an opportunity for your audience to identify with the underdog values of the documentary world, even if they don’t know how to get involved to make a change. (Surprise: your impact campaign will provide them with ready-made steps to take next.)

When writing a great documentary ﬁlm, setting up a clear A vs. B values system is key, just like in a great feature ﬁlm. Too many documentarians fall prey to “more is more” and end up with A vs. B, and C vs. D, but also E vs. F. Instead of multiple sets of (unrelated) conﬂicting values, think in terms of nesting values. The internal, external, and philosophical (and perhaps even theological) stakes serve as different manifestations and articulations of a single, greater truth. For example, the internal stakes shows how the truth plays out in the inner journey of a key character. Then, the external stakes reveal how that inner journey is in conﬂict with the dominant values of the realm or society in which the story plays out. The philosophical stakes remind us of what is at stake in the world and society at large—our world as viewers—if the dominant values win out. And for me, the theological stakes express what happens on the scale of humankind (not just society). Your various stakes will ideally nest just as Luke’s internal journey (will he become a Jedi or not?), the external stakes (will the rebellion defeat the empire?), the philosophical stakes (will freedom win out over tyranny?), and the theological stakes (will good triumph over evil?) come together to form a single, comprehensive strand in STAR WARS.
The World as We Know It, or the Ordinary World. It’s time to build a sequence (series of scenes) to introduce the audience to the issue. Remember: Show, don’t tell. In the world of documentary ﬁlm, actions and interactions are still more powerful than background and exposition. Don’t get lost in the facts. Introduce your audience to the issue through the lives of the characters featured in your documentary. Pay special attention to the dominant values of the documentary world. Give the audience time to get to know the characters and featured experts who’ll guide us along the journey. Can’t escape from the world of talking heads? Of course you can. Consider the possibilities that animation might introduce into your project. Get creative. It’s all about ﬁnding an effective way to engage the viewer.
As part of the ordinary world, you’ll want to signal that a storm is brewing. Things may appear to be continuing on as usual, but you want to create the impression that something is about to happen. Things can’t continue as they are. You’re setting up the opportunity for an event to take place that invites the protagonist—in this case your audience—into a new journey. In some cases, you’re getting ready to open up the new promise of possibility: a possibility for change. Or, if you’re deep diving into a challenging issue that’s much worse in reality than the audience imagines, you’re about to take them down the rabbit hole into the harsh day-to-day realities to which they’ve managed to remain oblivious and from which they’ve been sheltered… until now. We want the audience to get the sense that there’s something not quite right about the world being presented to us, and we’re ready to expose it.
Inciting Incident, or Catalyst. Remember, we’re just lighting the fuse here. The stick of dynamite doesn’t explode quite yet. This is the moment everything changes, even if the audience is unaware of how crucial the information is. This is the ﬁrst invitation to go on the journey down the rabbit hole. Introduce a critical, and unexpected, aspect of your story.
Dilemma. Now we’re going to up the ante. The stick of dynamite explodes. Here, I want the audience to mentally wrestle with the decision to call into question their assumptions and go on the journey. Position a story element or research to cause the audience to jump off the ledge. How can this be? This shouldn’t be possible in the real world. And yet, how can we possibly make a difference? We get the sense that if we continue on with the ﬁlm, we’ll be presented with answers to some of our questions. By this point, the audience wants to follow the director down the rabbit hole but is perhaps a little tentative simply because the topic might seem overwhelming.
The audience commits to crossing the threshold. They might not fully understand what they’re getting themselves into yet, but you want audience members to be willing participants in the journey. By the time we reach the threshold and the break into Act Two, the audience should have the sense that their perception of the world at the beginning of the ﬁlm was limited. They want, and need, to learn more. This will ensure that they not only continue watching the ﬁlm, they’ll be emotionally invested in the outcome. You’ve opened the possibility for more facts and details in the second act, because your audience crosses the threshold seeking answers. We’re ready to take the leap.
Adventure Sequence. We’ve dived down the rabbit hole and now we’re confronted with the realities of the extraordinary world. This is a space that’s quite different from our day-to-day experience. We’re discovering new territories and feel a sense of progression and measurable success in confronting the bleak realities of the issue. As in a major feature narrative, it’s also a good time to introduce your supporting character or storyline. And again, I ﬁnd it useful to structure the ﬁrst half of Act Two according to a series of three or four mini-goals to help me get from the threshold crossing all the way to the midpoint. Create topical, nested subdivisions for the ﬁrst half of Act Two. This is your chance to show the audience just how different reality is compared to the assumptions they had entering the documentary in Act One.
Character Moment #1 (around 40%) This is a great time to solidify the audience’s growth by introducing them to an aspect of the story (or statistic) they might not have been willing to consider or hear during Act One. You’ve earned their good will. Push them further out of the comfort zone. This is a good time to remember that your primary protagonist, for our purposes here, is the audience. We want the audience to go through the character arc. If you also have a secondary protagonist, to help them identify, within the ﬁlm, this is the moment for their ﬁrst character moment too.
Midpoint. The tide turns. The midpoint of a great documentary makes utterly clear what’s at stake. Here, the audience feels that the underdog values (for which they’ve been rooting) are under attack. From this point forward, we’re overwhelmed with the sense of an uphill battle. It’s not going to be as easy as we thought to defeat the dominant, cultural values. In fact, this marks the point when we begin to question whether it will be possible at all.
All Downhill: Attack of the Dominant Values. Everything goes from bad to worse. The second half of Act Two presents a series of ever-increasing setbacks. Not only are we facing an uphill battle, it seems unlikely the underdog values can win. This incites a feeling of outrage in the audience. How can we have allowed things to get so bad? Why can’t we change the outcome? What will it take to stand up to the bad guys? Once again, I like to split the second half of Act Two into three to four mini-goals or sequences.
Character Moment #2 (around 65%) This is your opportunity to push the audience even further along. Present them with a fact or experience that they wouldn’t have been able to imagine at the beginning of the journey. However, they’re willing to confront it now, given everything they’ve seen this far—even if it makes them feel uncomfortable. They should feel a pit in their stomach by this point of the story—a promise of the brick wall to come. Once again, mirror this experience of the character moment if you have a protagonist ﬁgure inside the documentary story, with whom the audience is predisposed to identify and empathize.
The Brick Wall. As in a feature ﬁlm, the brick wall affords the audience the opportunity to take in the overwhelming horror of the dominant values. For a moment, we feel that ﬁghting back is utterly useless. There’s no point. But it’s time to allow the ﬁlm, and the characters in it, to serve as a great supporting character to the audience. Create the equivalent of a pep talk by demonstrating just enough of a glimmer of hope that they’re willing to get in the ﬁght and push back. The characters in the ﬁlm are willing to go where we might fail to go, because they recognize what’s a stake and know it’s the only way forward. The brick wall in a documentary is perhaps the most critical moment when it comes to inviting your audience to take a stand and commit to not only considering your solution, but joining you in the impact campaign. The Brick Wall marks the end of Act Two and serves as the break into Act Three.
The Final Face-Off. This is your opportunity to envision solutions, even if they seem far-off at the current time. Provide the audience with a glimmer of hope. Present them an image of what the world could be. Show them that victory is possible, even if it hasn’t been achieved yet. This is your chance to issue an invitation for viewers to take up and continue the ﬁght into the real world, when the movie ends. In a great impact documentary ﬁlm, the ﬁnal face-off typically occurs off-screen. It is achieved by the viewers, together, when they embrace the pathway laid out in the impact campaign. Act Three of the ﬁlm must make the audience feel that change is not only desirable, it’s achievable—even in the face of great adversity. It’s why they sign up to be part of the solution.
Resolution. Provide the audience with a sense of how different the world might be, if we all chose to make a difference. This is the vision that will guide the impact campaign. It’s never too early to start planning how you want to package the ﬁlm for the audience. Think of your ﬁlm as a product, and you’ll recognize in my advice the general principles of product design, as described, for example, in Jonah Berger’s book, Contagious: Why Things Catch On. Jonah wants to know what makes things popular, why people talk about certain products and ideas more than others, and why some stories “go viral” (whereas others do not). It might be tempting to respond that the key lies in advertising—but that’s not true. If you’re interested in building “viral” content that others will talk about, endorse, and pass on, it has much more to do with questions asked and choices made at the stage of product development. I’m a fan of applying this approach to documentary ﬁlms, as they can help guide us towards storytelling decisions that not only make sense for the story, but also for the marketability and share-ability of your ﬁlm. In other words, don’t wait until you’ve shot your ﬁlm to ﬁgure out what you want to do with it. We’ll return to these principles in more detail in a book on documentary ﬁlmmaking.

Documentary Film